In most cases wars are initiated by governments，not by populations．And，most of the time，they are the result of disputes over resources and land，or of a government’s desire to increase its influence and power．However, looking back over the history of warfare，what is most striking is how willing most people have been to fight in wars，or at least to support them．

The early American psychologist William James once suggested that war is so popular because of its positive psychological effects．It creates a sense of unity in the face of a collective threat and inspires individual citizens (not just soldiers) to behave honorably and unselfishly, in the service of a greater good．It supplies meaning and purpose beyond the routine of everyday life．War also enables the expression of higher human qualities that often lie hidden in ordinary life，such as courage and self-sacrifice．

James’s argument is that human beings need to find activities that provide the same positive effects of warfare but which don’t involve the same destruction，or as he calls it．“the moral equivalent of war”．

In stable , peaceful and more economically developed countries，life is so rich and varied that there are many ways of satisfying these needs—through sport，our careers，entertainment and hobbies．However, in other parts of the world where life is especially hard—when people live in poverty and are oppressed，and where there is little hope for the future，it's harder to satisfy those impulses，and if there is an obvious enemy or oppressor to direct them towards，then war is almost unavoidable．

This isn’t to say that a waning party may not have a just cause，and this argument doesn’t explore other important social and psychological factors involved in war, such as social identity and moral exclusion．However, it does show that any stable．1asting peace depends on creating societies with a richness of opportunity and variety that can meet human needs．The fact that so many societies throughout the world fail to do this makes our future prospects of peace look very gloomy．The author’s attitude towards the future is __________．

A．pessimistic	B．optimistic
C．objective	D．uncertain